Anglo American Model Of Corporate Governance Finance Essay

Anglo American Model Of Corporate Governance Finance Essay Corporate Governance Models In many countries, companies are run mostly for the benefit of the shareholders, the rightful owners 0. However, there are circumstances in which the corporation is also run for the benefit of other interest groups such as customers and employees or the general public at large -1. This is the substantive difference between the two primary models of corporate governance namely the outsider model, which is used in Anglo-American countries such as the United States or United Kingdom 1 and the insider model, which is used predominantly in European countries such as Germany or France 4343. The outsider model, also known as the Anglo American model of corporate governance because it is predominantly used in Anglo American states like the United States and United Kingdom, is consistent with the narrow definition of corporate governance in that it has a bias towards shareholders over other stakeholders in the corporation 2. This bias is justified on the premise that in most instances, other stakeholders have recourse to protect their interests through contractual agreement, whereas the shareholder remains unprotected as corporate decisions and activities cannot be predicted in advance 3. Since the shareholders carry the risk of the investment decisions made by the corporation, it is argued they should have the primary say in corporate governance. The justification for this ideology is that the primary function of a corporation is the creation of wealth 4. Permitting corporations to focus on profit maximizations as their primary function ensures that businesses create economic growth as oppose to dealing with social considerations which distract them from this objective. It has been argued that directors are not sufficiently experienced in balancing social interests with economic ones and as a result to require them to do so would result in an inefficient system, which would not promote the economic welfare of the market. The Anglo American model starkly contrasts to the stakeholder-oriented approach which is commonly associated with European countries such as Germany and France 5. Under this model, corporations must not only take into account the interest of shareholders but also those of a wide range of constituencies, as well as of the communities within which they operate 6. This helps to assure that corporations operate for the benefit of society as a whole and not solely in the interests of its shareholders. Such a system places less emphasis on the interests of shareholders for the benefit of the wider community 7. There are several characteristics which distinguish the Anglo American model from the stakeholder-oriented approach. Those unique to the Anglo American model are discussed below. Responsibility for Corporation Management The effective functioning of a corporation is dependent on the interrelationship and interaction of its various institutions 1. These institutions consist of the board of directors, the executive management and shareholders 2. The shareholders of the corporation are the owners who have financially invested in the corporation and the board of directors, as well as executive management, are responsible for the operation of the corporation 3 . The Anglo American models primary focus is on maximising profits for the benefit of its shareholders 4. This model does not facilitate input into the corporations affairs by other parties nor does it permit the managers of the corporation to prioritize issues, such as employees or the environment, unless they are compatible with the profitability of the corporation 5. The executive management is charged with the responsibility of operating the company with the view to maximising shareholder profit. The essential role of the management team, who is lead by the corporations Chief Executive Officer (CEO), is to perform the day-to day operations of the corporation 5555. The CEO plays a critical role in administering the companys affairs. The CEO chooses the management team and, from a practical perspective, has the final say in many issues relating to the corporation despite the provisions of many corporate statutes and procedures. The Board exists primarily to be an effective corporate governance mechanism for hiring, firing, monitoring and compensating management 6666. The Board, by legislation and corporate by-laws, are delegated a wide variety of responsibilities which enable them to set the companys main objectives and monitor their application by the executive management. The Board of Directors is therefore the main organ of the company and acts as agents for its owners by supervising the actions of the managers. There are two popular forms of boards of directors namely, the unitary (one-tier) and dual (two-tier) boards 6. The Anglo American model favours the unitary board 7. Under this system of management, the number of directors is usually set in the corporations by-laws and they are elected by the shareholders at the AGM for a set period of time, normally a one year term 8. The Board consists of executive directors (EDs), who are considered employees of the corporation, and non-executive directors (NEDs), who tend to be professionals or experts that are independent of the corporation 9. While an EDs sole responsibility is to increase profits for the shareholders, there is a potential risk that their interests may conflict with those of the corporation 10. The function of NEDs is to strike a balance between the interest of the shareholders and EDs 11. As independent third parties, they should have no conflict of interest and are therefore equipped to monitor the performance of the EDs impa rtially to the benefit of the shareholders should EDs try to deviate from their principal objective. The success of the Anglo American model is dependent on the extent to which the Board can effectively supervise the actions of the executive management 12. While legislation and regulations seek to ensure a balance between the two entities, in practice the executive management is by far more powerful than the Board 13. The nature of publicly held companies is that the executive management has a great deal of flexibility in determining how they discharge their responsibilities in attaining the objectives of the corporation 14. To encourage them to do so, they are more often than not enticed with substantial compensation packages with performance based remuneration. It has been argued that such compensation packages encourage the executive management to concentrate on short term results as oppose to the companys overall or long-term interests 15. This problem is further compounded by the dominant role the CEO plays in the relationship between the executive management and the Board. Whi le in board meetings the Board is technically supervising the CEO and his management team, the former have a large degree of control over the meetings. The CEO sets the agenda for board meetings and decides what information is to be provided to other directors. With this sort of control, it is very easy for the CEO to limit the powers of the Board 16. However, over the past few years, the dominance of the CEO has been challenged not only by the increasing influence of the board of directors 17,but also by legislation. A clear example of this can be seen from the requirement for the CEO to certify personally in quarterly and annual SEC reports that as far as they know these contain no untrue statements or omissions of material facts which might mislead shareholders and that the firms financial condition and results have been fairly presented 18. The Rights of Shareholders The ability of a shareholder to exercise its ownership rights and protect its investment is a key to the Anglo American model of corporate governance. Due to the fact that the focus of the Anglo American system focus is on the interest of shareholders, this model tends to focus on the nature of ownership and the ability of that ownership to protect its investment 0. One of the clear challenges which arise from the separation of ownership and management is to strike the right balance between the rights of the owners with the control of the managers 1. There are several mechanisms which the Anglo American model utilises to deal with this issue 2. These come in the form of rights which are afforded to the shareholders which enable them to monitor and control the managers of the corporation 3. The Anglo American model utilizes an outsider/arms length system of ownership and control, where share ownership is widely dispersed. Most of the largest corporations in the US and UK are quoted on the stock market and offer their shares to the general public 4. This sort of dispersed ownership is a main feature of this type of model. According to one study, less than one-fifth of the Britains publicly traded companies have an owner who controls more than 25% of the shares 5. It has been argued that the reason for this is because the general public in these co mmunities prefer not to own a high percentage of equities in large firms 6. Having said so, even countries who share a similar trend in ownerships are not always identical. For example, one major difference between the US and UK in terms of ownership is the stronger presence of institutional shareholders in the UK 7. This trend towards ownership by institutional shareholders has an impact on the efficiency of the Anglo American model. The institutional shareholder represents a large number of smaller investors and therefore has the clout to effectively monitor and address managerial misconduct 8. In the UK context, it has become conventional wisdom that prompting institutional investors to consider their responsibility as an important corporate constituent is an additional way to improve managerial accountability 9. Unfortunately, this has not always been the case primarily because many institutional shareholders are driven by short term strategies which may not have as their paramount concern the long term welfare of the corporation. As Hutton says, the consequence [of tax arrangements] has been a flood of institutional savings and acute demand for dividends and the foreshortening of investment time horizons 10. In addition, it has been shown that when dissatisfied with the performance of a corporation, many institutional shareholders would prefer to sell their shareholding than to play some sort of supervisory or monitoring role in the corporation 11. Another problem facing institutional shareholders is how to reconcile their roles as shareholders owning shares in many listed companies with their role as investors of funds 12. Given that their primary motivation is to make profit for their investors, they compete fiercely with each other to attract funds in order to ensure a high return on their investments 13. Consequently, when faced with mismanagement it is easier for them to sell than to hold management to account. Further, it has been argued that even when institutional shareholders were willing to intervene in the corporations affairs, there are practical obstacles which make it difficult for them to do so. One of these is what is commonly referred to as the motivation factor. Proctor and Miles define it as follows There is a disincentive for single institutional shareholders to expend time, effort and resources correcting what they perceive as bad management if other fellow institutional shareholders do not also support this action. Institutional shareholders have different priorities and agendas at any one time. It may be difficult to pool resources to tackle together what to some institutional shareholders may not be a problem at all. 14 In light of the challenges institutional shareholders face in monitoring management of companies, the Anglo American model can only be successful if there are other mechanisms in place which can be used to protect shareholders 15. The main focus of the Anglo American model is in the protection of shareholders 16. In this respect, both the UK and US system are similar in the way corporate directors and senior managers are held accountable to their shareholders 17. Both systems encourage shareholders to work as monitors over managers and senior executives 18. To facilitate this monitoring process, shareholders have many statutory rights and common law rights. The main right afforded to shareholders that provide them with a means of controlling the management of the company is their statutory right to vote on decisions at the Annual General Meeting (AGM) 19 . The AGM is an annual meeting which shareholders are entitled to attend 20. At this meeting, the shareholders are informed about the previous and future activities of the corporation 21. It is an opportunity for them to receive copies of the companys accounts as well as review fiscal information for the past year and ask any questions regarding the directions the business will take in the future 22. In addition, the shareholders are able to elect the Board of Directors 23. This right is designed to operate as a check on the managerial actions of the Board of Directors and executive management. Shareholders are able to participate in discussion regarding the companys welfare and vote on important affairs relating to the company 24. While the right to vote at a corporations AGM may at first glance appears to be an effective means for shareholders to protect their interest, in practical terms this is often not the case. Publicly held companies usually consist of a large number of small owners who own very small fractions of the corporations shares 25. Having a small proportion of the corporate equity means that shareholders have little influence on managerial decisions 26. Furthermore, due to the fact that their shareholding is insignificant, it is unlikely to give them any real power at AGMs where they are suppose to be able to exercise their legal rights. As a result, many shareholders are not incentivised to attend AGMs. For this reason, the Anglo American model has additional mechanisms which are designed to enhance the control of the managers by shareholders. Most, if not all, of these legal and organisational safeguards have been devised in response to abuses of corporate power by managers who fail to put t he interests of shareholders first. These mechanisms are intended to encourage minority shareholders to be active in protecting their rights and holding directors accountable for actions 27. The three main mechanisms which will be discussed below are cumulate voting, appraisal rights and shareholders derivative action 28. Cumulative voting is a process by which minority shareholders are permitted to cast all their votes in the election of directors for a single candidate 29. Through this process, the power of the minority is strengthened because they are able to pool their votes together and secure a member of the Board who they feel confident will look after their interests in the corporation 30. Shareholders are also given the right to seek appraisal of their shares in certain fundamental transactions for example where a merger takes place. In these circumstances, a shareholder can seek a court valuation of their shares based upon fair value and be paid in cash 31. This right to sell ones shares can be seen as a protective measure for shareholders, because it encourages directors to seek the highest price in such transactions so as to avoid several shareholders exercising this right 32. Having said so, there are some disadvantages to this right. In most cases the methods of valuation are conservative and therefore shareholders do not necessarily benefit in real terms. The process is time consuming and payments need not be made until the process is complete. Attorneys and experts fees can be high and interest is not assured. Of all of these rights, the derivative suit against directors is probably the strongest tool which can be used by shareholders, particularly minority shareholders. A derivative suit is a claim brought by a shareholder on behalf of the corporation against parties allegedly causing harm to the corporation 33 . This right strengthens the position of shareholders, in particular minority shareholders. As a common law country where case law principles are well developed and where shareholders are said to be better protected, judicial intervention is believed to be an essential element of good corporate governance. A derivative action would not be effective unless the management of a corporation has a duty to its shareholders. The board of directors is a critical part of the corporation and as a result must be held to account to the corporations owners if good corporate governance is to prevail. In the UK, directors are subject to common law fiduciary duties and case law still plays a central role in holding managers and board of directors accountable to the corporation as a separate legal entity. Seeing the relationship between the directors and shareholders as one of agency implies that directors should be elected by shareholders and can be dismissed by them at the AGM. The focus therefore is clearly on ensuring that those who manage the corporation are always acting in the best interest of the corporations shareholders. The lean of the Anglo American system to protect the interests of shareholders is most evident when looking at the manner in which it deals with takeovers and acquisitions of corporations. In instances where there is a takeover bid, shareholders need to be given an opportunity to decide on the merits of a takeover so as to ensure that shareholders of the same class are afforded equivalent treatment by an offeror and thus are being treated fairly. The Anglo American model therefore provides a degree of protection to shareholders in instances where a corporation is subject to a takeover bid. For example, in the UK, the City Code on Takeovers and Mergers 7777 (the City Code) ensures that shareholders are treated fairly and are not denied an opportunity to protect their interest 8888. The City Code essentially essentially all defensive actions when a takeover bid is pending or when the target has reason to believe that a bona fide offer might be imminent 9999. Once a bid is made, any defensive action requires shareholder approval. This means management of the corporation cannot supersede the interests of its shareholder, who so ever it shall be. UK case law emphasises that the fundamental decision on takeovers belongs to shareholders, not incumbent managers and generally holds that management actions which go against shareholders rights are not pursuant to a proper purpose and therefore fall outside the scope of the delegated management authority afforded by the common law. Disclosure and Transparency Disclosure and transparency are important in managing the relationship between shareholders on the one hand and the executive management on the other. Shareholders have a right to make decisions in relation to the corporation based on information that is accurate and correct 1. This is the only way they can be sure that the corporation is being managed properly. Financial reporting frauds have attracted high-profile attention recently provoked by widespread irregularities at large corporations 2. It is managements responsibility to prevent such problems before they begin 31. To do so, it is necessary to establish a control environment designed to identify and immediately stamp out any fraudulent reporting that does occur 32. One of the tools which is used to protect shareholders interests in this respect is the audit committee 3. An audit committee is an operating committee of the Board of Directors charged with oversight of financial reporting and disclosure 4 . Committee members are drawn from members of the companys board of directors, with a Chairperson selected from among the committee members 33. To be effective, the committee must be composed of independent outside directors with at least one qualifying as a financial expert 34. The audit committee plays an important role as a board subcommittee. The Smith Report 5 explains its role as follows: While all directors have a duty to act in the interests of the company, the audit committee has a particular role, acting independently from the executive, to ensure that the interests of shareholders are properly protected in relation to financial reporting and internal control. An analysis of the corporate governance codes of twenty European countries by Collier and Zaman (2005) 6 showed that their codes assign a set of functions which should be fulfilled by an audit committee as follows: a) oversight of external audit; b) oversight of internal audit; c) involvement in external auditor selection or dismissal; d) oversight of risk and internal control reporting by the board; and e) oversight of financial reporting quality. In carrying out these functions, the committee operates as a liaison between the Board, external auditors, internal auditors, the finance director and the operating 7 . They are for all intents and purposes the final safeguard in ensuring the financial statements of the corporation which are released to shareholders and other stakeholders are accurate. The Board often relies on the audit committee to notice and question any unusual business practices, aggressive accounting methods or violations of the companys code of business conduct. But at many companies audit committee members may not have the expertise in matters of internal control 8. In addition, some people serving on audit committees have very little accounting or financial experience 9. Accordingly, audit committee members need a reference guide to their responsibilities. That is the function of an audit committee charter 10. A comprehensive charter enhances the effectiveness of the audit committee, serving as a road map fo r committee members 11. A well-thought-out charter also should describe the committees composition and specify access to appropriate resources. OECD PRINCIPLES Good corporate governance is key to the integrity of corporations, financial institutions and markets 1. They also play an important role in promoting the health and stability of a states economy. Many international organizations have come to understand the importance of good corporate governance including the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 2. To this end, the OECD established the first set of internationally acceptable standards of corporate governance, known as the OECD Principles, which have become a reference point used by both developed and developing countries not only for self-assessment but also for issuing and developing codes of best practice 3. The OECD work in corporate governance is centered on promoting the implementation of these principles throughout the world. They are arguably one of the most substantial efforts made to highlight the importance which should be given to corporate governance. The OECD Principles were first released in 1999 and revised in 2004 4. It sets out the key standards of corporate governance which are required for international financial stability. The Principles are intended to assist governments to evaluate and improve the legal, institutional and regulatory framework for corporate governance in their own countries 5. The Principles primarily focus on publicly traded companies, but provide a good guideline for other forms of corporations. The main principles of the OECD Principles 6are: The corporate governance framework should promote transparent and efficient markets, be consistent with the rule of law and clearly articulate the division of responsibilities among different supervisory, regulatory and enforcement authorities. The corporate governance framework should protect and facilitate the exercise of shareholders rights. The corporate governance framework should ensure the equitable treatment of all shareholders, including minority and foreign shareholders. All shareholders should have the opportunity to obtain effective redress for violation of their rights. The corporate governance framework should recognise the rights of stakeholders established by law or through mutual agreements and encourage active co-operation between corporations and stakeholders in creating wealth, jobs, and the sustainability of financially sound enterprises. The corporate governance framework should ensure that timely and accurate disclosure is made on all material matters regarding the corporation, including the financial situation, performance, ownership, and governance of the company. The corporate governance framework should ensure the strategic guidance of the company, the effective monitoring of management by the board, and the boards accountability to the company and the shareholders. In addition to the OECD, business-related organizations like the Centre for International Private Enterprise have also considered corporate governance to be important in the promotion of good business practices 7. The Centre has an affiliate located in Egypt which was established to educate, raise the awareness of the importance of establishing suitable corporate governance standards in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. 8

Lesson Plan Social Studies

Student Teaching Lesson Plan Template Subject: Social Studies | Topic: Who Where the first Americans? | NCSCOS/Common Core Objective: The learner will acquire strategies for reading social studies materials and for increasing social studies vocabulary. 1. 01 Read for literal meaning. 1. 02 Summarize to select main ideas. 1. 03 Draw inferences. 1. 04 Detect cause and effect. The learner will analyze important geographic, political, economic, and social aspects of life in the region prior to the Revolutionary Period. 1. 01 Assess the impact of geography on the settlement and developing economy of the Carolina colony. . 02 Identify and describe American Indians who inhabited the regions that became Carolina and assess their impact on the colony. 1. 03 Compare and contrast the relative importance of differing economic, geographic, religious, and political motives for European exploration. | Date submitted: 10/27/11 Date taught: 11/1/11 – 1/3/2011| Daily Lesson Objective: Students will be able to: State who the first Americans were. Experience customs of first American families. Understand how first American communities have changed. Identify the different regions where the Indians lived in North Carolina.Connect first American customs to their own experience. Develop their English listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. | 21st Century Skills: Global Awareness, Critical thinking and problem solving:| Rationale/Purpose: Students need to understand the culture and history behind the native American community. Student need to know America’s beginning history and who its first inhabitants were. Students can benefit from understanding Native American culture and finding similarities within their own culture. | Activity| Description of Activities and Setting| Time| 1. Focus and Review | Journal Prompt: Who were the first Americans?Get students warmed up, writing and talking in preparation for class. | 10 min| 2. Statement of Objective for Student| Last quarter we learned about the geography of North Carolina. We learned important terms and facts about the state of North Carolina. This Quarter we are learning about the first Americans, How they got to America and what happened after they arrived in America. | 5 min| 3. Teacher Input | The new unit lesson is introduced to students. Introduce lesson and go through PPT. Review lesson material previously taught. Emphasis new terms. Have students repeat terms, definitions, and lesson details. 30 min| 4. Guided Practice | Call on individual students to answer questions embedded in presentation. Praise correct choices and re-teach incorrect choices to entire class. Students are asked to define terms and re-state relevant facts. | 30 min| 5. Independent Practice | Students are asked to come up to the board and choose the correct answer from a multiple choice format. Other students are asked if the choices are correct or incorrect. If incorrect, the other student is asked to correct th e answer. Students are asked to practice the terms introduced in this lesson by copying each term three times.Students are given worksheets to complete| 15 min| 6. Assessment Methods: 21st Century Skills and Lesson Objective| Global Awareness, Critical thinking and problem solving: Tests are checked for accuracy and scored. | 5 min| 7. Closure| Discuss upcoming lessons and classroom expectation. Review classroom procedures and daily itinerary. | 5 min| 8. Assessment Results: 21st Century Skills and Lesson Objective| Global Awareness, Critical thinking and problem solving: Assess writing samples, choice making and levels of assistance needed to produce appropriate writing samples, Identify stronger writers in the classroom. Student(s) & Modifications/Accommodations:1. Students are asked questions that correspond with learning levels. Some students are asked open ended questions and given choices after 30 sec of no attempt to response while other students are immediately given verbal/ visual choices. 2. Student unable to write complete sentences are assisted with forming sentences a loud verbally in class then asked to copy the correct sentences from the smart board. 3.Non verbal students are immediately assisted by instructor or Para professional and given choices. Once student makes a choice the response is then recorded by staff. | | Student/Small Group| Student/Small Group| | | Differentiation:Students are asked to approach smart board and make choices. Students are asked questions in yes or no format. Assistance is varied according to learning levels . i. e. choices are given, answers written for students to copy, and hand over hand assistance. | Differentiation:|

10 College Tips for Freshman Women

The best advice usually comes from someone whos been there, done that. So for guidance on how to make the most of your first year at college, who better to ask than a graduating senior? Emma Bilello shares insights shaped by personal experience in the first of three articles addressing the specific concerns of female students during freshman year. The following 10 tips can help ease the transition from high school to college and provide a heads-up on what to expect. Remember That First Impressions Can Be Misleading   At college, you are exposed to a whole new spectrum of different people from all over, many of whom are just as eager as you to make friends. Sometimes, though, the people you associate with during those first few weeks dont end up being the same group of friends you keep during your time in college. Get to know a person before you tell them things about yourself that you may not want everyone to know. This can go for guys you encounter as well. You may find yourself getting hurt if you believe a guy every time he tells you that he wants to spend the rest of his life with you. It is important, though, to not question the intentions of every person you meet. Give the College Experience a Chance Whether were talking about the people you meet or the college you attend, keep in mind that first impressions are not only misleading but can make you doubt yourself and your decision. Between missing your family and friends, and confronting the new-found academic challenges higher education brings, it is easy to believe that you hate college itself, or even the college you go to. While it may be rough in the beginning, if you allow yourself to look at the positives of being at college rather than the negatives, you will find your experience in the first few months to be a lot more enjoyable. Get involved with clubs or student government and go to events at your school to make new friends and get comfortable with the new environment youre in. Look at the change in difficulty of the coursework as challenging rather than impossible, and think of it as an opportunity to use your academic skills to their fullest potential. Of course, if you find yourself constantly struggling, seek help from your professor or teaching assistant. Dont Let Homesickness Consume You While its important to keep in contact with your family and friends back home, it is also completely natural (and expected) that youll be homesick. When we woke up the very first morning of my freshman year, the first thing we did was call home because we already missed our family. However, it is crucial not to immerse yourself in your life back home to the point where it begins to hinder your school work and your ability to make new friends. Cell phones, social networking sites, and programs such as Skype make it easier than ever to stay connected, but be sure to limit your use of these tools. Remember that there are plenty of other new college students who feel the exact same way you do (this may even be grounds for starting a conversation) and it will be hard to get to know some of them if youre ruminating on how much you want to be back home. Prioritize There are a lot of new experiences waiting for a girl when she starts college: new friends, roommates, different places, etc. With all of these new things happening all at once, it can be easy to get distracted. Although it is important to socialize and engage in activities outside of academic areas, it is equally important to remember that one of the main reasons you are in college is to get an education. Although going shopping with new friends is a lot more appealing than studying for an exam, in the long run the latter is the better choice. Similarly, avoiding procrastination is another often-stressed but key tip for being successful in college. If you develop time management skills as a freshman, even if you struggled in high school you are more than likely to keep these good habits throughout your college career. Be Aware of Your Surroundings This sounds like a given, but in a situation involving lots of people, it can be easy to lose track of what may be happening around you. If you are drinking at a party, opt to mix or pour your own drink or watch the person who is doing the mixing or pouring. If you have to step away from your drink for a few minutes, ask someone you trust to guard it or even hold it for you. Whether youre with a group or on your own, knowing what types of situations may put you at greater risk of rape or sexual assault on campus can help you avoid those scenarios. Go with your gut instincts and dont be afraid to look over your shoulder every once in a while when you are walking, especially if you are alone. Take Action to Protect Yourself   If you engage in consensual sexual activity at any time, make sure that you use protection. It is important to make sure that your partner is aware that you want to take this precaution upfront. If he refuses to condone to this, then simply dont get involved with him. Make sure you stand your ground with this decision too; dont give into the temptation of changing your mind if your partner tries to persuade you otherwise, or even if he verbally puts you down. Unwanted pregnancy is not the only reason for this; according to the Sexual Health Awareness Group, college students have a high vulnerability to sexually transmitted diseases. More and more colleges across the country are making condoms easily accessible to students -- some even provide them for free. Dont Be Afraid to Say No   We have found that college can sometimes be just as much of a cooker for peer pressure as high school, and it can be easier to give in because there isnt always a person of authority in close proximity. If you find yourself in a situation that is making you even a little uncomfortable or if you feel that it might lead to something that will make you uncomfortable, dont be afraid to say no or even remove yourself from the situation entirely. Be Wise During Night Time Travels   At times, you may find yourself having to venture around your campus at night, whether its for an evening class or a late-night snack. Whatever the reason, if you find yourself having to walk somewhere at night, bring a friend with you whenever possible. If this isnt an option,  make sure you have your cell phone with you  and have your campuss security number programmed in your phone. Walk in a well-lit area and avoid shortcuts that take you into dark or less-traveled areas, no matter how convenient they may seem. Try Not to Act on Impulse This tip can apply to any of the areas mentioned previously. Think through a situation as thoroughly as you can before making a decision to do (or not do) something. Sleeping in instead of going to class may seem appealing at eight in the morning, but when your absences start to stack up and affect your grade, youre going to wish that you had simply gotten out of bed and gone to class. (We have found that once we drag ourselves out of bed and get moving in the morning, the tiredness quickly wears off, sometimes as soon as I leave my dorm.) Having unprotected sex may come across as more convenient or fun at first, but there can be serious consequences involved. Taking a few minutes to think a decision through before you act is a lot easier than dealing with the aftereffects of something that seemed like a good idea at the time. Be Aware of the Resources Available to You Just because youre in college and are considered an adult doesnt mean that it isnt okay to ask for help. Whether it be academic or personal, your college is full of people or groups that are willing to accommodate you in any area that you may need. If you arent sure who exactly you can go to for help, ask someone -- such as your Resident Advisor -- to direct you to the appropriate person or people. Sources Meyerson, Jamie.  Testing, Prevention Important For Lowering College STD Rates.  Cornell Daily Sun. 26 March 2008.

Calculating pH of a Strong Acid - Chemistry Problems

A strong acid is one that completely dissociates into its ions in water. This makes calculating the hydrogen ion concentration, which is the basis of pH, easier than for weak acids. Heres an example of how to determine the pH of a strong acid. pH Question What is the pH of a 0.025 M solution of hydrobromic acid (HBr)? Solution to the Problem Hydrobromic Acid or HBr is a strong acid and will dissociate completely in water to H and Br-. For every mole of HBr, there will be 1 mole of H, so the concentration of H will be the same as the concentration of HBr. Therefore, [H] 0.025 M. pH is calculated by the formula pH - log [H] To solve the problem, enter the concentration of the hydrogen ion. pH - log (0.025)pH -(-1.602)pH 1.602 Answer The pH of a 0.025 M solution of Hydrobromic Acid is 1.602. One quick check to make sure your answer is reasonable is to verify the pH is closer to 1 than to 7 (certainly not higher than this.) Acids have a low pH value. Strong acids typically range in pH from 1 to 3.